Recognising Violence in Sport
Understanding violent behaviours in sport including sexual harassment, boundary violations, grooming and abuse of power
Sport should be a place where athletes can develop their abilities, build healthy relationships and participate with dignity, confidence and respect. Yet many features that make sport powerful – trust, teamwork, physical instruction, travel, close cooperation and intensive training – can also make inappropriate behaviour harder to recognise.
Violence in sport does not always begin with one unmistakable incident. It may develop gradually through comments, unwanted attention, private communication, favouritism, secrecy, pressure or repeated testing of professional boundaries. That is why recognition matters before a situation becomes more serious.
Violence in sport can exist on a continuum: seemingly minor comments, humiliation, secrecy or boundary testing may overlap with other forms of abuse and may escalate over time.
Why this module was developed
This module was developed directly from the CoViS Needs Analysis in Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia. The findings showed that athletes and sport professionals need practical tools that help them distinguish safe professional interaction from behaviour that is concerning, coercive or unacceptable.
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CoViS insight: why this module matters In the CoViS project, athletes described behaviours such as sexualised jokes, body comments, mockery based on sex, private messages, unwanted touching and pressure linked to opportunities. A key problem was not only that these behaviours happened, but that they were often not immediately recognised as harassment. › they were presented as humour, banter or “normal” team culture; › they came from trusted or powerful people in the sport environment; › the behaviour developed gradually rather than through one dramatic incident; › athletes were unsure whether they were “overreacting” or whether the behaviour was serious enough to mention. |
Learning goals
After completing this module, participants should be able to:
› recognise common forms of violence in sport with an emphasis on behaviours such as sexual harassment, boundary violations, grooming and abuse of power in sport;
› distinguish appropriate professional interaction from behaviour that may be concerning, coercive or unacceptable;
› identify how context, secrecy, repetition and power imbalance can change the meaning of behaviour;
› know the first steps to take when a safeguarding concern is recognised.
Safe sport starts with athlete rights
Every athlete has the right to be treated with dignity and respect, to train and compete in a safe environment, to have personal and physical boundaries respected, to ask questions and express discomfort, to seek support without retaliation, and to have concerns taken seriously.
The goal of this module is to help people recognise when something does not feel right, understand why it matters, and know that they do not need to prove a case before raising a concern.
CoViS findings – placed where they matter
Rather than presenting the findings as a separate list, the key CoViS percentages are highlighted throughout this module next to the behaviours they describe.
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● 50.0% About 1 in 2 athletes in the CoViS sample reported exposure to at least one form of sexualised behaviour. CoViS Needs Analysis, 2026 – sample finding; not a national prevalence estimate |
1. Recognition comes before proof
A major barrier to early safeguarding is the belief that someone must be certain that misconduct occurred before speaking up. They do not. Recognition and investigation are different responsibilities.
› Observation: what you directly saw, heard, received or were told.
› Concern: why the behaviour may be inappropriate, unsafe or inconsistent with policy.
› Reasonable suspicion: believing that misconduct may have occurred, without claiming that it has been proven.
› Finding: a conclusion reached by an authorised body after an appropriate assessment or investigation.
Athletes, teammates, parents and sport professionals are not expected to investigate or determine guilt. Their responsibility is to recognise behaviour that may be inappropriate or harmful and make sure the concern is not ignored.
Fear of making a false accusation is understandable. But noticing and communicating a concern is not the same as publicly accusing someone or deciding that misconduct has been proven.
What is sexual harassment?
Sexual harassment is unwanted or unwelcome behaviour of a sexual nature. It may be verbal, non-verbal, physical or online, and it may involve one serious incident or a repeated pattern of behaviour.
It can involve a coach, doctor, physiotherapist, team official, volunteer, teammate or another person in the sport environment. What matters is the behaviour, the context, the power relationship and the athlete’s ability to refuse.
Examples may include:
| Behaviour | Real-life example |
| Sexualised jokes or comments | “With a body like yours, no wonder everyone is watching you.” |
| Repeated comments about an athlete’s body, clothing or appearance | “That outfit really shows off your body.” |
| Unwanted questions about private or intimate relationships | “So, are you sleeping with anyone at the moment?” |
| Sexual gestures or intrusive staring | “An athlete notices a coach, staff member or teammate repeatedly staring at their chest or body during training.” |
| Inappropriate messages, images or online communication | “Send me a private photo — just for me.” |
| Unwanted physical contact | “Come here, don’t be so shy,” while continuing to touch the athlete after they move away. |
| Pressure linked to selection, playing time, travel or sporting opportunities | “If you want to travel with the team, you need to be a little nicer to me.” |
| Retaliation after an athlete rejects attention or expresses discomfort | “Fine. If that’s your attitude, don’t expect to be selected next time.” |
The following examples are illustrative. The meaning of a behaviour always depends on context, repetition, power imbalance, the athlete’s response and applicable safeguarding rules.
2. Professional boundaries, grooming and abuse of power
A professional boundary defines the limits of an appropriate relationship between an athlete and a person in a position of responsibility, such as a coach, team official, physician, physiotherapist, administrator or volunteer. A boundary violation may not always meet the formal definition of violence in sport, but it can create risk, confusion or dependency.
Examples include:
› unnecessary private communication;
› repeated meetings alone without transparency;
› personal gifts or special privileges;
› sharing highly personal information with one athlete;
› comments about an athlete’s body or private relationships;
› contact outside the agreed professional role;
› asking an athlete to keep a relationship or communication secret.
Grooming
Grooming is a gradual process through which a person develops trust, emotional dependency, secrecy or a “special relationship” and progressively tests or moves boundaries.
A possible pattern is: access and trust → special treatment → isolation → secrecy → boundary testing → escalation.
Grooming may involve:
› giving one athlete exceptional attention;
› offering gifts or privileges;
› creating emotional dependence;
› isolating the athlete from teammates, parents or other trusted adults;
› communicating through private channels;
› normalising small boundary violations;
› asking the athlete to keep information secret;
› making the athlete feel responsible for protecting the relationship.
A single gift, message or individual training session does not automatically prove grooming. Concern increases when several behaviours form a repeated pattern involving secrecy, favouritism, isolation, escalating intimacy or misuse of authority.
Abuse of power
Power in sport may come from control over selection, playing time, competitions, scholarships, travel, medical treatment, training conditions, contracts or career progression. An athlete may appear to agree while feeling that refusal could cost them an opportunity. A strong power imbalance must therefore be considered when evaluating professional conduct. Coercion may also involve threats, humiliation, isolation or control – for example, linking selection, financial support or sporting opportunities to personal or sexual compliance. If saying no may cost selection, a scholarship, treatment or another important opportunity, consent may not be freely given.
3. Why can inappropriate behaviour be difficult to recognise?
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● 22.3% reported unwanted or inappropriate physical touching. CoViS Needs Analysis, 2026 |
Normalisation within sport culture
Behaviour can become accepted simply because it has existed for years. Humiliating comments, sexualised jokes, intrusive monitoring of athletes’ bodies or harsh treatment may be defended as tradition, motivation or discipline. Common statements include:
› “This is how champions are made.”
› “Athletes should not be so sensitive.”
› “It was only a joke.”
› “That is normal in our sport.”
› “They treat everyone like that.”
› “Results are more important.”
Repeated exposure can make inappropriate conduct appear ordinary, especially to younger athletes who learn what is “normal” from respected adults and experienced teammates.
Trust and emotional closeness
A good relationship between an athlete and a coach, physician, physiotherapist, team official or other trusted person may include trust, encouragement and emotional support. Closeness itself is not the problem. The key question is whether the relationship remains professional, transparent, age-appropriate, connected with a legitimate sporting role, and free from secrecy, pressure or exploitation. Closeness becomes concerning when professional boundaries are crossed, or when the relationship becomes secretive, sexualised, exploitative or difficult to refuse.
Physical contact in sport
Physical contact may be necessary for coaching, medical care or safety. It is more likely to be appropriate when:
› there is a legitimate, necessary and proportionate sporting, medical or safety purpose;
› the purpose and nature of the contact are explained beforehand, in language the athlete can understand;
› permission is sought before contact whenever the athlete is able to give it; emergency medical or safety situations may be an exception;
› the contact is limited to what is necessary;
› the setting is observable and professional;
› the athlete’s discomfort or refusal is respected;
› organisational procedures are followed.
These safeguards are especially important in light of the CoViS finding below.
Mockery based on sex
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● 44.0% reported insults or mockery based on sex at least once; 30.9% reported it a few times or often. CoViS Needs Analysis, 2026 — examples are shown directly below. |
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What does “mockery based on sex” mean? Mockery means making an athlete the target of ridicule, belittling jokes or stereotypes because of sex or gender. In sport it may be disguised as “banter” or motivation – for example: “You throw like a girl”, “This is a man’s sport”, “Stop being so emotional”, “Relax, it was only a joke”, or “We talk to everyone like that.” |
4. What harassment can look like – and how to judge the situation
Harassment may be verbal, non-verbal, physical, digital or relational. The same behaviour can also take on a different meaning depending on context, repetition, secrecy, power imbalance and the athlete’s ability to refuse.
A behaviour is more likely to be appropriate when it has a legitimate purpose, is necessary, transparent and respectful of professional boundaries; concern increases when it is unnecessary, repeated, secretive, sexualised, coercive, difficult to refuse or linked to a power imbalance. Context helps distinguish professional interaction from boundary violations and harassment; it does not excuse prohibited behaviour.
What might this actually look or sound like in sport?
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● 14.7% reported sexual remarks, aggressive calls or unwanted photos. Example: unwanted sexual remarks or a request to send a private photo. CoViS Needs Analysis, 2026 |
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● 48.9% of athletes reported comments about their body, clothing, marital status or sexuality. Example: personal, sexualised or degrading comments about an athlete’s body, clothing or sexuality. CoViS Needs Analysis, 2026 |
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● 12.0% reported sexual blackmail or coercion into sexual contact. Example: linking selection, travel or another sporting opportunity to sexual or intimate compliance. CoViS Needs Analysis, 2026 |
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VERBAL: Sexualised or degrading words, intrusive questions, rumours or pressure after refusal. “Nice body. Are you seeing anyone?” — followed by more comments after the athlete looks uncomfortable. |
NON-VERBAL: Staring, sexual gestures, inappropriate images or taking photos without permission. A staff member or teammate repeatedly stares at the athlete’s body while they are changing. |
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PHYSICAL: Unwanted or unnecessary touch, especially when the athlete moves away or shows discomfort. The athlete steps back, but the person moves closer and touches them again. |
DIGITAL: Private or late-night messages, sexualised content, requests for images, disappearing messages, secrecy, sharing or threatening to share private images or information without consent, or persistent online monitoring. “Send me a photo. Use disappearing messages — no one else needs to know.” |
CoViS Traffic-Light Guide for Recognising Behaviour
This traffic-light guide was developed for the CoViS module from the CoViS Needs Analysis and international safeguarding principles. It is a recognition aid, not a legal, diagnostic or investigative classification.
| LEVEL | WHAT IT MEANS | WHAT IT MAY SOUND OR LOOK LIKE |
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● GREEN |
Appropriate, professional and transparent. There is a clear sporting, medical, educational or safety purpose, and the athlete’s boundaries are respected. |
› “I need to correct your shoulder position. Is it okay if I touch your shoulder?” › “I’ll send the training plan in the team group.” › “If anything feels uncomfortable, tell me and I’ll stop.” › A one-to-one session takes place in an observable area. |
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● AMBER |
A boundary concern. It may not prove violence, but it deserves attention — especially when behaviour is repeated, secretive, escalating or linked to a power imbalance. |
› “You’re my favourite — don’t tell the others.” › “Message me on my private account; we don’t need to use the team group.” › “Come to my room after training. We can talk alone.” › “Why are you so sensitive? I was only joking.” — after the athlete has shown discomfort. |
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● RED |
Unacceptable or prohibited behaviour. Sexualised conduct, coercion, threats, retaliation, secrecy or continuing after refusal requires action. |
› “If you want to be selected, you need to be a little nicer to me.” › “Send me a private photo — and don’t show anyone.” › “Don’t pull away. You need to trust me.” — while continuing unwanted contact. › “If you tell anyone, you can forget about the team.” |
Remember: Amber does not establish guilt. The guide helps recognise when a situation deserves attention; it does not replace assessment, reporting procedures or national law.
5. Situations that require stronger safeguards
How to read this table: these situations do not indicate violence in sport by themselves. They are contexts in which clearer boundaries, transparency, supervision and safeguarding procedures are especially important.
The concern is the behaviour, not the professional title. Safeguarding applies to coaches, doctors, physiotherapists, team officials, administrators, volunteers, teammates and others in the sport environment.
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✈ Travel & accommodation |
1:1 One-to-one training |
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▣ Locker rooms & changing areas |
✚ Medical care, physiotherapy & massage |
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🚗 Private transport |
★ Social events & alcohol |
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👥 Teammates & peer behaviour |
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Who may need additional protection?
Anyone can experience violence in sport, but some athletes may have fewer opportunities to challenge authority or seek help. Increased vulnerability may be associated with:
› being a child or adolescent;
› being new to a team;
› dependency on a coach, team official, medical professional or organisation for selection, treatment, financial support or sporting opportunities;
› disability and reliance on others for personal assistance;
› limited family or social support;
› language barriers;
› financial insecurity;
› social isolation;
› minority status;
› fear of discrimination;
› recent movement to a new city or country;
› strong emotional investment in a sporting career.
6. Warning signs, the five-question check and first response
Warning signs are signals, not proof
Possible signs involving an athlete include avoiding a particular person, distress after messages, withdrawal, sudden loss of motivation, fear of travel or individual training, changes in attendance, visible discomfort, unusual gifts or privileges, or an unexplained wish to leave sport.
Possible signs involving a person in authority include repeated unnecessary time alone with one athlete, excessive favouritism, personal gifts, communication outside official channels, secrecy, disregard for safeguarding rules, anger when boundaries are questioned, or using sporting opportunities to secure personal loyalty.
The CoViS five-question recognition check
| 1 | WANTED? Is the athlete comfortable with it? |
| 2 | NECESSARY? Is there a clear sport, medical, educational or safety reason? |
| 3 | TRANSPARENT? Would this happen the same way if others were present? |
| 4 | FREE TO SAY NO? Could refusing affect selection, opportunities or support? |
| 5 | SECRET OR ESCALATING? Is it becoming more private, personal or intense? |
If one or more answers raise concern, do not ignore it. You do not need proof to seek advice or communicate a safeguarding concern.
What should happen after a concern is recognised?
Detailed reporting procedures are covered in Module 5. The first response here is deliberately simple: prioritise immediate safety, take the concern seriously and use the appropriate safeguarding channel. No one should try to prove the case themselves.
If you are the athlete
Move away or end the interaction if you can do so safely. Tell a trusted person and use the available safeguarding or reporting channel. Save relevant messages or other information when it is safe to do so. You do not need to confront the person or prove what happened before seeking help (see Module 4 about how to cope with violence in sport).
If you are a teammate, parent or sport professional
Listen without blaming, take the concern seriously and focus on immediate safety, avoid confronting the suspected person without guidance or conducting a personal investigation; do not promise absolute secrecy; record relevant facts when appropriate; consult the designated safeguarding person or reporting mechanism; contact emergency or public authorities when there is immediate danger or a legal obligation (see Module 3 about the proposed actions of a bystander).
Remember: recognising and communicating a concern is different from investigating or determining guilt. Early recognition can prevent harm.
Funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). Neither the European Union nor EACEA can be held responsible for them.